Archaeologists working in northern Sudan have uncovered documentary evidence confirming the historical existence of King Qasqash, a ruler of the former Christian Kingdom of Makuria who had previously been known only from later legend.
The discovery was made at Old Dongola, the medieval capital of the kingdom, and has been detailed in a new study published in the journal Azania.
Scholars at the Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology at the University of Warsaw (PCMA UW) have been uncovering Arabic documents at the site. One of the texts examined is a written order issued in the name of King Qasqash, marking the first direct historical corroboration that the ruler was indeed a real historical figure.
Until now, Qasqash had been known only from brief mentions made in a hagiographic work from the early nineteenth century, and so many historians have come to think of him as semi-legendary. According to Arabist Tomasz Barański, who is analysing the documents, the newly found manuscript eliminates that uncertainty.
“The written order issued by King Qasqash proves the historical existence of this figure,” Barański explained, noting that the text provides rare insight into the political and economic dynamics of Dongola during a transformative period in Sudan’s history.
Although the document pertains to administrative matters, scholars believe it helps shed light on how royal authority operated. Barański suggests that Qasqash and his court probably oversaw the distribution of goods and prestige in a traditional patronage system that bound rulers and subjects together.
The manuscript also gives insight into the cultural changes of the late medieval Middle Nile Valley. Written in Arabic, it shows that the scribes under the successors to Makuria were already composing in the language around the turn of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries – a period in which the Arabisation and Islamisation of the region were becoming more and more pronounced.
But the presence of Arabic in official documents does not necessarily mean it had become the everyday language of the royal court or the wider population, researchers warn. Communities outside the political centre likely continued to speak local Nubian languages in daily life.
The document itself has survived remarkably well. Unlike many other manuscripts discovered at Old Dongola, often preserved only in fragments, the order written in Qasqash’s name remains intact.
Analysis of the handwriting suggests that the scribe’s command of Arabic was imperfect, featuring non-standard grammatical forms and relatively simple calligraphy. Scholars believe this reflects a context in which Arabic had not yet become a native language for local officials.
Written on an irregularly shaped sheet of paper, the text has led researchers to believe it is more of a draft than the final version of the royal order. Archaeologists found the manuscript in a large residential complex believed to have belonged to the city’s elite. Luxury objects, including cotton, linen and silk textiles, as well as items made from ivory and rhinoceros horn, were found. At the site, more than twenty Arabic documents were recovered, many found in refuse layers.
Local residents have long referred to the ruins as the “King’s House,” a tradition that now appears to align with the archaeological evidence. Researchers say the discovery illustrates how oral history preserved by the Dongola community can complement archaeological investigation, revealing enduring memories of rulers such as King Qasqash that have survived for centuries.
Sources : Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology, University of Warsaw
